History of the Church
The 4th Century
the empire is ruled by Diocletian, who has delegated power to three other rulers to help him manage Rome’s large territory.
As the fourth century begins,
Diocletian delegates power over the western half of the empire to Maximian and they each choose Caesars to help them rule. The Caesar would marry a daughter of their emperor.
Diocletian and Galerius rule in the east, while Maximian and Constantius Chlorus rule in the west.
While the severity of the persecution varies across the empire depending on the ruler, it is brutal in the places where Diocletian’s Edict is enforced.
The infamous Diocletian persecution begins.
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Galerius and Constantius Chlorus succeed them. Maximin Daia becomes Caesar of Galerius; Constantine becomes Caesar of Constantius.
Diocletian and Maximian resign…
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311
also known as the Edict of Galerius or the Edict of Toleration. This was hardly a “pro-Christian” edict; rather, it acknowledged the right of Christianity to exist.
Constantine, Licinius, and Galerius issue an edict to end the persecution,
Constantine defeats Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge.
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Constantine converted shortly after the Battle of Milvian Bridge. The story goes that on the eve of the battle, Constantine had a dream in which he conquered his enemy under the sign of the Cross. His conversion was momentous for Christians and Christianity. He had already issued a joint edict (see 311) ending the Diocletian persecution, and in 313 would issue the famous Edict of Milan, a further sign that Christians were safe to practice Christianity openly. Only a few years later he would take sole control of the empire.
That the emperor was Christian provided a certain societal environment that would allow for Christianity to take root in the Roman Empire visibly in a way which it had not previously. Churches and their clergy would become prominent elements of cities, and Christianity would permeate Roman education and politics.
However, Constantine’s conversion also brought new challenges. While it did mean that Christianity gained a new foothold in the world, it also became more entangled with it. New questions and issues arose, especially around how political power was to interact with the Church. The Council of Nicaea is a microcosm of this question. On the one hand, the Council of Nicaea was largely brought about by Emperor Constantine and it was successful in that it settled important issues facing the Church. Namely, it affirmed the deity of Jesus Christ through the formulation of a new creed and anathematized Arius’ heretical teachings. On the other hand, Constantine brought Arius out of exile only a few years after the council ended, effectively becoming one of the primary reasons the Arian controversy would define the rest of the fourth century.
Constantine the Great
Edict of Milan
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Constantine and Licinius issue a letter from Milan on freedom to practice religion of one’s choice. This becomes known as the Edict of Milan.
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318
The Arian controversy begins.
"There was a time when the Son was not."
The Arian Controversy
Nothing defined the fourth century Church quite like Arianism. Broadly speaking, Arianism wrestled with the question of how to understand the nature of Jesus Christ and his relationship with God the Father. Arius, the Alexandrian priest responsible for this heretical formulation, asserted that Jesus was neither coeternal nor consubstantial with God the Father; rather, he was created by the Father. Thus, the popular slogan by which Arianism spread went, “There was a time when the Son was not.”
The Council of Nicaea in 325 dealt decidedly with these questions. The divinity of Jesus Christ as the coeternal Son of God was affirmed, and the Son’s relationship to God the Father was defined as “consubstantial” [homoousios] or “of the same nature.” Additionally, Arius was anathematized and sent into exile.
Unfortunately, things were not as settled as they appeared.
Arius would use his time in exile to build new relationships and push his case. He was eventually allowed to return, and he found favor with both Constantine and his son Constantius II, who would eventually rule over part of the empire after Constantine’s death.
What followed would more accurately be referred to as the homoousios-homoiousios debate. Arianism became a “catch-all” term used when discussing this issue; however, a closer look at Arianism throughout the fourth century reveals significant variations in the heresy between the time of Arian (who lived until about 336) and the Arianism one sees by the 350s.
The main issue at stake in the debate was the meaning of the term "homoousios," which was used in the Nicene Creed formulated at the council in 325 to describe the relationship between Jesus and God the Father. However, Arian Christians, who became known as the “homoiousians,” believed that Jesus was not of the same substance as God the Father, but rather that he was “of a similar substance” [homoiousios]. Any view that did not recognize Jesus as consubstantial with the Father in the way formulated at Nicaea became known as “Arian.” Thus, going forward, you will see figures either referred to as “Arian” or as professing “Nicene Orthodoxy.”
Throughout the fourth century, The homoousian-homoiousian debate would ebb-and-flow largely based on the reigning political rulers' sympathies. However, it was often the case that regardless of a political leader’s sympathies, he cared less about theological precision and more about unity in the empire.
Constantine becomes the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
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The Council of Nicaea
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The Church’s first ecumenical council, formulates the original Nicene Creed and condemns Arius’ teaching.
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible.
And we believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten of the Father.
That is, of the substance of the Father; God of God and Light of light; true God of true God; begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father.
By him all things were made, both which are in heaven and on earth: who for the sake of us men, and on account of our salvation, descended, became incarnate, and was made man; suffered, arose again the third day, and ascended into the heavens, and will come again to judge the living and the dead.
We also believe in the Holy Spirit.
First of all, then, in the presence of our most religious Sovereign Constantine, investigation was made of matters concerning the impiety and transgression of Arius and his adherents; and it was unanimously decreed that he and his impious opinion should be anathematized, together with the blasphemous words and speculations in which he indulged, blaspheming the Son of God, and saying that he is from things that are not, and that before he was begotten he was not, and that there was a time when he was not, and that the Son of God is by his free will capable of vice and virtue; saying also that he is a creature. All these things the holy Synod has anathematized, not even enduring to hear his impious doctrine and madness and blasphemous words...
Arius anathematized...
St. Athanasius of Alexandria
Life: c. 297 - 2 May 373
Bishopric: Alexandria, Egypt
Ordained Bishop of Alexandria in 328 around age 30.
NOTABLE WORKS:
- On the Incarnation
- The Life of St. Antony
- Orations against the Arians
St. Athanasius is venerated in both eastern and western churches and is considered a “Church Father.” He is especially known for his role in combating the Arian heresy and his vigorous defense (and expansion) of the teachings promulgated at the Council of Nicaea in 325, a council which he attended as a diaconate secretary to his predecessor Bishop Alexander.
Athanasius’ life is intricately woven into the political and theological environments of the 4th century. He was repeatedly exiled from his bishopric depending on the theological loyalties of the emperor (although his initial exile by Constantine had more to do with false allegations regarding the grain supply chain than theological loyalties) and in his absence an Arian bishop was installed. For instance, Constantine’s son, Constantius, was loyal to the Arians and renewed Athanasius’ exile when he came into power in the east.
While exiled Athanasius remained a very popular figure and continued to communicate with his diocese. He had the support of the monks in the desert, including the popular St. Antony, of whom Athanasius eventually published a biography. His political cunning helped him retain influence and persevere through repeated exiles over the course of his episcopacy.
His commitment to Jesus as the “eternal Word of God,” “consubstantial” with the Father, in spite of overwhelming Arian attacks earned him the name Athanasius Contra Mundum, Athanasius Against the World.
"The Son of God became man so that man might become God."
- Athanasius
The empire is divided between his three sons: Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans...
Constantine dies.
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After Constantine II dies invading his brother Constans’ territory (c. 340), Constantius II and Constans tensely rule the empire together until around 350 when Constans is deposed by a popular general, Magnentius. Magnentius’s control of the East was short-lived as he was eventually defeated by Constantius a year later.
The Arian debate was one of many issues over which Constans and Constantius clashed. Constans (and Constantine II) was partial to Nicene Orthodoxy and shielded figures such as Athanasius. Constantius, however, was an Arian (or at least a semi-Arian). Athanasius, in particular, became a point of contention between the two brothers. Constantius would later be one of the four emperors to exile Athanasius.
Constantius II consolidates power
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and becomes the sole ruler.
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356
Saint Anthony of Egypt dies.
Saint Antony the Great (c. 251 - 356) was a monk who lived a radically ascetic life in the desert of Egypt during the third and fourth centuries. He is considered the father of monasticism, which is the practice of renouncing worldly pursuits to live a solitary, ascetic life devoted to spiritual work such as prayer. He was known for his miracles, fighting off demons, and his rigorous prayer life. His life was popularized by Athanasius’ The Life of St. Antony, which became one of the most widely distributed stories of ancient times and its popularity lasted well into the medieval era.
While asceticism was already practiced by Christians, St. Antony and his story greatly influenced monasticism in the fourth century. His teachings around living an ascetic life, largely propagated through Athanasius’ work, became the ideal for monastics, especially in and around Egypt.
St. Antony was also revered for his orthodox, Nicene faith. According to Athanasius, he briefly left the desert to preach and defend Nicene orthodoxy. His influence helped level the playing field in Egypt where the Arian controversy originated and an Arian bishop was installed in place of Athanasius. Athanasius, in particular, was able to find safety among the monks in Egypt on at least one occasion.
Chaos in Constantinople
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Constantius convened two councils in 359 to settle the homoousian-homoiousian debate. A council of western bishops met at Rimini and eastern bishops at Seleucia. Neither council progressed without its fair share of controversy, and the emperor put a lot of pressure on the council to find a unanimous compromise between the conflicting positions.
Delegates from both councils then met at Constantinople. The result was an imprecise creed that resembled Nicaea but was a clear rebuke of it. The idea, it seemed, was to be ambiguous enough to garner agreement from all parties—but defenders of the original Nicene Creed were not appeased. This led Jerome to famously write, “The whole world groaned to find itself Arian.” For a time, orthodoxy seemed lost. However, leadership in the Roman world was about to change drastically, and this change in leadership would have equally drastic consequences for Christendom.
Julian the Apostate, Roman Emperor
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rules until 363
Julian, Constantine’s nephew, was one of the few male family members spared when Constantine the Great’s three sons took power. He spent most of the first half of his life banished to a remote fortress. Eventually he was able to leave that region of the world when his half-brother was made Caesar around 351. His brother was eventually executed and replaced by Julian. His success as a military commander and his direct relationship to Constantius II / Constantine put him in a position to seize power when Constantius died in 361.
Julian was known as “the Apostate” because of the anti-Christian reforms he implemented during his reign. Julian attempted to reintroduce pagan worship during his time as Roman Emperor, and made it illegal for empire schools to continue teaching Christian ideas. Julian’s reign was relatively short-lived—he died in 363 while on a military campaign in the east.
“The whole world groaned and was astonished to find itself Arian.”
- Jerome
Jovian becomes emperor.
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Jovian’s reign was even shorter than that of Julian’s. It was unfortunate too, as Jovian was a supporter of the Nicene faith and of figures like Athanasius. He died suddenly one night, and the circumstances surrounding his death are uncertain.
Saint Ambrose of Milan
Life: c. 339 - 397
Bishopric: Milan, Italy
Ordained around 373
NOTABLE WORKS:
- On the Duties of the Clergy
St. Ambrose was a popular figure in the secular world before becoming Bishop of Milan (c. 373). It was due in part to this popularity that he was elected bishop upon the death of his predecessor, the Arian Bishop Auxentius, and on the same day baptized. He faithfully served the people of his diocese and was a staunch defender of the Nicene faith against the Arians.
Ambrose stood up to the emperors of the age and was one of the first leaders of the Church to articulate the distinction between religious power and state power, maintaining the Church’s independence from the state. At one point, Ambrose excommunicated Emperor Theodosius for his role in a massacre.
It would be negligent not to mention that Ambrose was also an author of hymns and his musical influence over the liturgy—particularly through music—can still be recognized today, especially in eastern Churches.
Saint Gregory of Nazianzus
Life: c. 325 - 389
Bishopric: coadjutor with his father at Nazianzus (in modern day Turkey); Constantinople
Ordained around 361
NOTABLE WORKS:
- A large collection of letters
Gregory of Nazianzus, one of the Cappadocian Fathers, was raised in a Christian home, though his father apparently held some heretical views at one point in his life. Gregory was afforded a high education at a famous school in Caesarea. At this school he met St. Basil, another figure who would also come to be known as a Cappadocian Father. St. Gregory and St. Basil’s friendship would last throughout their entire lives. Letters between the two are still extant and they reveal the deep impact they each had on each other’s lives.
St. Gregory was renown for his oratory and theological skills. He was committed to Nicene orthodoxy and even helped his own father, who was bishop of Nazianzus, overcome the heretical Arian beliefs he held. St. Gregory was the bishop of Constantinople around the time of the Council of Constantinople in 381. While his life work and teachings ultimately influenced the Council (Jerome, for instance, express gratitude for St. Gregory’s work), he resigned before it ended and ultimately retired to Nazianzus.
Gregory retired from the see of Constantinople in 381 due to ongoing discord and health concerns. His farewell address is considered among his most beautiful orations. Many later commentators have expressed that Gregory did not have the natural temperament to deal with the stress and chaos that came with the highly political Constantinople see.
Saint Basil the Great
Life: c. 329 - 379
Bishopric: Caesarea, consecrated on 14 June 370
NOTABLE WORKS:
- On the Holy Spirit
- A large collection of letters
St. Basil of Caesarea, also known as St. Basil the Great and one of the three Cappadocian Fathers, is among the most distinguished of the Church Fathers. He came from a family of saints. His siblings include St. Macrina and St. Gregory of Nyssa, his parents suffered persecution for the faith, and he had grandparents who were martyred.
Basil received an intense education in Caesarea and this is where he met his lifeline companion, St. Gregory of Nazianzus. Unlike St. Gregory of Nazianzus, St. Basil demonstrated a knack for cunning political maneuvering and an ability to bring order to a diocese and area in chaos.
While St. Basil died before the Second Ecumenical Council, the Council of Constantinope in 381, his fierce defense of Nicene orthodoxy no doubt significantly influenced the Council.
Saint Gregory of Nyssa
Life: c. 330 - 395
Bishopric: Nyssa, consecrated in 371
NOTABLE WORKS:
- The Life of Macrina
- The Catechetical Oration
St. Gregory of Nyssa was the younger brother of St. Basil the Great and the third of the three Cappadocian Fathers. Also a fierce defender of Nicene Orthodoxy, he was briefly exiled from his see around 375 and was not able to return until the death of Valens around 378.
While many of St. Gregory’s works remain extant, his most popular work is likely The Life of Macrina, which details the holy life of his sister Macrina through her death. It also provides valuable biographical insight into the life of his family, including St. Basil. While Gregory has much admiration for his brother Basil, his brother occasionally expressed frustration at Gregory for the way he managed ecumenical affairs.
Valens becomes emperor in the east and Valentinian I becomes emperor in the west.
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Valentinian and his brother Valens ruled the Roman Emperor after Jovian’s death. Valens was sympathetic to the Arian cause and Valentinian partial to the Nicene cause; however, they both seemed to care more about maintaining order in the empire than promoting their respective Christian views. Valentinian’s faith was further complicated by Justinian, his second wife, who held firm Arian views.
A series of emperors compete for power (375-395).
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Gratian eventually accedes to the throne in the west (375), but is replaced by Valentinian II in 382.
379-395
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Theodosius I rises to power in the east in 379 and eventually consolidates power in the empire in 392.
Theodosius the Great would become the most significant emperor since Constantine. Gratian, the emperor of the west, elevated Theodosius to emperor of the east after Valens’ death (c. 379). He proved to be effective both militarily—defending the empire from the Goths—and administratively, effectively ending the Arian controversy.
Theodosius began to expel Arians from their churches soon after becoming emperor, and he was largely responsible for convening the Council of Constantinople in 381 (a.k.a. The Second Ecumenical Council), which put an end to the Arian homoousios-homoiousios debate.
Beyond expelling Arianism and suppressing other heresies in the church, Theodosius was known for his devoutness, and no story better illustrates this than one which includes him and Ambrose. After massacring thousands of Thessalonians, Bishop Ambrose refused to let Theodosius enter the Church and participate in the liturgy. Theodosius faithfully accepted months of penance to eventually be allowed readmittance.
Theodosius would be the last Roman emperor to rule over both the eastern and western halves of the empire.
Theodosius the Great
Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius issue the Cunctos Populos, also known as the Edict of Thessalonica, which established Nicene Christianity as the religion of the empire...
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EMPERORS GRATIAN, VALENTINIAN AND THEODOSIUS AUGUSTI. EDICT TO THE PEOPLE OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our Clemency and Moderation, should continue to profess that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition, and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one deity of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We order the followers of this law to embrace the name of Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since, in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give to their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation and in the second the punishment of our authority which in accordance with the will of Heaven we shall decide to inflict.
GIVEN IN THESSALONICA ON THE THIRD DAY FROM THE CALENDS OF MARCH, DURING THE FIFTH CONSULATE OF GRATIAN AUGUSTUS AND FIRST OF THEODOSIUS AUGUSTUS
— Codex Theodosianus, xvi.1.2
Other 4th Century Heresies
While Arianism dominated and shaped the theological landscape of the fourth century, other heresies existed. Other formidable heresies of the fourth century included Donatism, Apollinarianism, and Macedonianism.
Gnosticism competed with the church from nearly the time of the Apostles.
Donatism was a heresy that those who administered sacraments had to be holy or blameless for the sacrament to be effective. Donatism originated with the schismatic Donatists early in the fourth century and would persist for centuries.
The other two heresies, Apollinarism and Macedonianism, are related to Arianism. Apollinarianism is a heresy that denied Jesus was fully human, and it developed as a kind of reaction against Arianism. Macedonianism is a heresy that denies the divinity of the Holy Spirit. It was formulated by—unsurprisingly—a semi-Arian who also believed that like the Son, the Spirit was created.
Both views were denounced at the Council of Constantinople in 381.
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381
Council of Constantinople, Nicene Creed
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of his Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made. Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and was made man, and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate. He suffered and was buried, and the third day he rose again according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sitteth at the Right Hand of the Father. And he shall come again with glory to judge both the quick and the dead. Whose kingdom shall have no end.
And we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver-of-Life, who proceedeth from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets. And we believe in one, holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. We acknowledge one Baptism for the remission of sins, and we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.
Saint Augustine of Hippo
Life: 354 - 430
Bishopric: Hippo (in modern day Algeria)
Ordained in 391 and elevated to Bishop of Hippo in 396 (-430).
NOTABLE WORKS:
- Confessions
- City of God
The Church Father St. Augustine is arguably the most influential Christian of the western church. Of the many extant writings of Augustine, the two most notable are his autobiographical work Confessions and The City of God.
He was a prolific writer and wrote many theological letters and treatises defending the Christianity from various heresies plaguing the Church like Docetism, Manichaeism, and Pelagianism. And through his defense of the faith against heresies like Pelagian, for instance, he helped to define and articulate Christian doctrines related to grace and free will. His influence on the Church both in his time and through modernity is hard to overstate.
Saint Jerome
Life: 347- c. 420
Canonized Saint, Doctor of the Church
NOTABLE WORKS:
- Translation of the Bible into Latin (producing the Vulgate)
- Commentaries on numerous biblical texts
St. Jerome was a towering theological figure of the 4th and 5th centuries of the Church and is recognized as an outstanding scholar and biblical exegete. He is recognized as a Doctor of the Church. His most notable contribution to the Church was the translation of most of the biblical texts into Latin. His translations were ultimately used to form the Latin version of the bible known as the Vulgate.
Jerome mixed it up with other Fathers of the Church such as Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa whom he met at the Second Ecumenical Council (the Council of Constantinople, 380). He was attracted to asceticism and spent much of his life in study at a monastery he founded in Bethlehem.
Theodosius I is replaced by his sons, Arcadius in the east and Honorius in the west.
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Saint John Chrysostom
Life: c. 347 - 407
Bishopric: Constantinople, consecrated in 398
NOTABLE WORKS:
- On the Priesthood
St. John Chrysostom was known as an outstanding orator and talented exegete/theologian, so much so that he is considered a Doctor of the Church.
That which we know about St. John Chrysostom’s religious life begins around the time of the Council of Constantinople. He was ordained a deacon around 381 in Antioch by Meletius, the first president of the Council. Through the 80s he earned himself the reputation of a skilled rhetorator and one learned in the Scriptures.
Around 398 he was brought to Constantinople from Antioch and made bishop. His time as Bishop of Constantinople was difficult and short. He implemented sweeping reforms and made his fair share of enemies. He was eventually exiled and died from maltreatment during his march to a city on the outskirts of the empire.
In Summary
The fourth century Church dealt with immense issues around the nature of the Godhead and the interplay between political and religious power. Both of these issues are apparent throughout the Arian controversy, which demonstrated how political power could radically impact the Church both positively and negatively. Figures like Constantine made it possible for the Christianity to shape Roman culture, but Constantine also made questionable decisions that set the stage for the homoousios-homoiosios debate. Fortunately, characters such as Athanasius, Ambrose, and Basil fiercely and courageously defended the Church and its teaching.
Debates regarding the nature of Jesus Christ would continue into the fifth century. If the fourth century was marked by questions concerning the Son's relationship to the Father, the fifth century was marked by questions regarding the natures of the Son. It wouldn't be until the middle of the fifth century when the Council of Chalcedon would define the relationship between Christ's human and divine natures—and as with the Council of Nicaea, debates would continue long after the council.